Reiki’s uniqueness as a healing therapy comes from five main qualities:
1. Reiki energy is osmotic: Reiki energy flows as if by osmosis and once it enters the body it will be used where it is most needed. There is no requirement to direct the energy. In osmotic terms there is a flow from high Universal Life Energy (the air surrounding us) to low Universal Life Energy (our tired and exhausted bodies!). The energy will flow as long as there is a difference in concentration. When there is no longer a difference in concentration, the body is in equilibrium. When Reiki is flowing it is drawn to areas of high need, it is an automatic process that requires no conscious direction or focus on our part.
2. Reiki energy is all-encompassing: It works on all levels: physical, mental and emotional. ‘One size fits all’ due to the neutral state of the energy as it enters the body. The energy is used by the body and does not act on the body. Like potential energy (for example, energy present in calories that is dormant until released by our cells), it is inert until ‘funneled’ into the body via our hands. Reiki energy will drive whatever work needs to be done: on a physiological level it can be used to repair damaged cells, reproduce, build immunity, create more efficient communication between different parts of the body, or release toxins. On a mental or emotional level it can be used to promote relaxation and calm.
3. Reiki energy flows automatically: Reiki will ‘switch’ itself on or off with no personal effort, skill, or special gift required by us. Anyone can be attuned to Reiki. Reiki flow switches on and off depending on the osmotic flow of the energy and without any conscious effort or belief on the practitioner’s part. So just as Reiki will flow to where it is most needed without our direction, so it will also be regulated by the body’s need in terms of the amount of flow required. This quality manifests itself whether Reiki is being given or received.
4. Reiki energy is complementary: Reiki is complementary with any other form of healing or medication. There are no known contra-indications. Because Reiki is a neutral energy it has no innate quality of its own so it is both complementary to other forms of treatment – such as chemotherapy – and safe to use when other treatments might be precluded – such as for pregnant women and babies.
5. Reiki energy is universal and limitless: Reiki does not use up personal energy or drain you in any way. Neither does it rely on your state of health. People who are already very sick can use Reiki to treat themselves or others. This quality makes Reiki very different from many other energy healing methods, for example Chi Gung (Qigong) healing, in which Chi (which is believed to be the life energy of the body) needs to be built up within the healer and then pumped into the person to be healed, dispelling their negative Chi. This leaves the Chi Gung Master depleted of energy. Reiki has the opposite effect in that, after treatment, practitioners often feel rejuvenated themselves having absorbed some of the energy that has been flowing through them to the other person. It is a significant benefit of Reiki that, by giving Reiki to another, you also receive it yourself. It also means that no matter how sick you are, you can still begin rebuilding your own energy without relying solely on others.
Every individual is unique and so is every individual’s journey with Reiki. It’s important to remember that Reiki itself is not ‘doing’ anything; it is simply providing the fuel – the energy – for you to do your own inner work.
Healing is commonly defined as the disappearance of symptoms and a return to feeling ‘normal’ (until the next time!). At the Reiki Centre, healing is defined as ‘the transcendence of suffering’, which is not the same as returning to ‘normal’. Healing is often much deeper than a simple elimination of symptoms.
The difference that this approach to healing can make is explained here: If I have frequent headaches I could take painkillers to relieve the symptoms, but I might then find myself in a constant cycle of medication and with no permanent alleviation of my suffering. If, however, I acknowledge my headache as being a symptom of a deeper disharmony, I can begin to investigate, within myself, what its cause may be.
Imagine that the illness or problem we are trying to heal is an iceberg, with 70-90% of it hidden from view. What we see above the surface is actually the symptom, in this case, the headache. When we discuss the Iceberg Concept during my Reiki class we come up with dozens of potential reasons for the headache: environmental reasons (light, heat, noise, pollution, etc); allergies; biochemical imbalances; emotional issues such as stress or anxiety; tiredness; back problems; tumors or lumps; concussion; the list is endless! I might have a headache because of one or two of these factors, or maybe because of all of them. But it is logical that the content of my iceberg will be different to yours, and that my healing journey will also be different in both route and length. Every body is different and so is every body’s healing journey.
As an illustration, here is a case study of two clients who both suffered from migraines, but whose ‘icebergs’ were caused by very different issues, and who responded to Reiki in two very different ways:
Client A, a woman in her 40s, came to me for treatments as she was suffering from migraines that left her lying in a darkened room for at least 48 hours. She had tried all types of medication, as well as Chinese herbs and acupuncture, without success. She came to Reiki as a last ditch attempt, on the recommendation of a friend. During our first session together she experienced a deep release of emotion and cried heavily for about 30 minutes. Afterwards, she described going back to the memory of when she was a young child and witnessing her parents go through a violent and aggressive divorce. All her frustration, fear and confusion was released during that one session. She reported feeling lighter and, quite frankly, amazed that she had blocked such powerful emotions within herself for so long. We arranged for two follow-up sessions, which passed without incident, and I know she did not experience any further migraines for at least the next four years (after which time I lost touch with her).
Client B, a man also in his 40s, came to me for treatment at the request of his girlfriend who hoped that Reiki would help him overcome his depression. As we spoke it became clear that he was suffering from a wide variety of problems including depression, immune system weaknesses and a general malaise that his life was not ‘turning out the way he wanted’. The first treatment passed without incident but he called me 24 hours later complaining of a terrible migraine. He had not mentioned the migraines during our session but now, on the phone, he reported having them infrequently – but not usually as bad as this. We continued with another two treatments but the migraines continued unabated. Miraculously (to my eyes), during our final session he admitted to me that the Reiki had helped him realize he had a lot of ‘sorting out’ to do and that the migraines were his internal alarm system, telling him he needed to get his life back on track. I was surprised that after three sessions his mind had opened so quickly to this possibility. I did not see him again after that but I can presume the Reiki sessions did not help his migraines, but gave him something possibly more valuable: a wake-up call.
To begin your own healing journey, its important to see your own uniqueness and melt your own iceberg. What works for your friend or therapist might not work for you, their experiences may help but they cannot guide you with any particular accuracy – only you can do that for yourself.
Reiki works much like meditation and our brain uses it to promote alpha and theta brain waves. The brain is seen to produce different frequencies of electrical activity across its neurons depending on what it is doing. Alpha waves are predominantly associated with states of relaxation, a calm wakefulness. These waves can be produced by closing your eyes, relaxing and becoming still. Theta waves are more predominant in skilled meditators and represent a quiet watchfulness – the mind watching its thoughts. Both types of waves denote relaxation and a stopping of active, busy or anxious thinking, or active concentration, which produces beta waves.
The promotion of alpha waves into the body system has a dramatic effect on our stress levels. In my opinion, using Reiki in this way is its most powerful benefit as it brings us growth, peace and vitality.
Reiki, like meditation, affects the mind by loosening its grip and helping us to release more and more energy and resources to the rest of the body. The active brain consumes more than 20% of the total energy required by the body (but only weighs about 2% of total bodyweight). Although there has not been extensive research on the amount of energy consumed by the brain in beta state versus alpha or theta, if you carry out your own simple experiment of relaxing quietly versus actively trying to problem solve, it is fairly clear which activity is more exhausting.
Meditation, for years, has been known in the East to be extremely health giving, calming and beneficial. Most Reiki practitioners attest to the similarities between Reiki and meditation, especially when it comes to the results they feel. As the art of meditation spreads to the West, research is confirming its qualities. Dr Andrew Newberg has run several experiments on expert meditators to find that there is a difference in the way their brain’s function compared with non-meditators. Specifically, there was a decrease in activity in the left brain, resulting in less brain chatter. Over time, when meditators are not meditating they show increased alertness, consciousness and empathy with others. In Dr Newberg’s recent research involving non-meditators who were given a chant to practice for eight weeks, results similar to those among the expert meditators were shown. These results show that anyone can learn to lessen the hold of their busy brains in a very short period of time and with little effort.
The Reiki Centre Survey found that respondents noticed improvements very similar to those mentioned above. Nearly 70% of respondents reported a reduction in their levels of anxiety, worry and stress in less than one year. Correspondingly, over the same period, over 70% of respondents noticed an increase in their levels of self-love, peace and contentment, with this figure rising to over 85% of respondents over a longer period of time. Since the Survey only captured data in yearly blocks, the improvements could have been noticed within weeks or months, certainly the qualitative responses indicate respondents saw changes soon after beginning self-Reiki, and this would mirror my own experience and the experience of many of my students. Reiki seems to follow very similar pathways to meditation by lighting up the intuitive (right) side of our brain that resonates with connection, empathy, oneness and wholeness therefore increasing our feelings of contentment, peace and happiness. In other words, it resets our brains and allows us to experience life in our natural state of being.
Reiki can provide an access point which allows us to experience inner peace by encouraging the meditative effects as described by Dr Newberg and others. The key difference between Reiki and meditation is the technique used to gain the same result: with Reiki the simple application of your hands on your body is enough to begin the energy flow, and as long as you are willing to stay still and quiet for long enough, you will experience the same effects of meditation without the discipline required to clear the mind or focus. Certainly, for me, this has been an important benefit, as I doubt I would have come this far if Reiki had been a painstakingly difficult and disciplined journey.
Reiki produces a sense of well-being and peace in our lives. This aspect of Reiki opens the door for many Reiki practitioners to look deeper into their lives and priorities. It is not uncommon for people who regularly self-Reiki to undergo radical shifts in their way of thinking, in their life purpose and reported feelings of clarity, focus and personal mission.
If you were educated in the last century it is likely you grew up, as I did, with an entrenched mechanistic viewpoint, believing life can be explained by the laws of physics and chemistry.
Given all we currently know about the workings of the human body, it’s hard to appreciate that 300 years ago renowned thinkers and scientists were in the middle of a great debate about what delineated living from non-living matter. The general belief was that living organisms were ‘vital’ because they had a spirit or a spark which set them apart from non-living things. In religion that ‘vital spark’ took the form of God, and in science it took the form of an organizing, non-physical force or element. Medicine, during this era, saw healing as an art – part intuition, part knowledge – in which the patient was very much involved. The healer or doctor provided the catalyst to help the patient find their own ‘vital spark’, the invigoration of which was a critical element for health and healing.
As science grew increasingly mechanistic, more and more medical doctors and researchers swung towards the idea that life was simply a chemical phenomenon. With wonderful breakthroughs such as the discovery of penicillin in 1929, the advancements in cellular biology and the unravelling of the DNA code, it seemed increasingly conclusive that all human workings could be deciphered via chemical reactions. As a result of this focus on the mechanics of biochemistry, medicine began to treat the body, to put it bluntly, as a robotic machine.
There began a split in thinking between what we know today as conventional medicine and holistic or complementary medicine. Conventional medicine focuses on treating the body when it is already broken or breaking down, and likens the healthy body to a well-oiled machine. Conventional medicine places little emphasis or study as to what keeps us healthy and vital. There is also little research on why some people remain healthy when others around them succumb to viruses and disease, or why some people seem to be able to heal from ‘incurable’ disease. Advances in conventional medicine are celebrated when researchers discover ways to treat an existing disease or cure an illness that has already taken hold.
In contrast, the focus of holistic medicine is prevention and bolstering the body’s own defences to maintain balance. A healthy body is viewed as one in which a strong immunity is developed due to the balance of all body systems – mental, emotional, spiritual, as well as physical. By definition, holistic medicine is vital and maintains a philosophical belief that life is sustained by a ‘vital spark’. In Chinese medicine this spark is defined as ‘Chi’, in Indian Ayuvedic medicine it is referred to as ‘Prana’.
As we enter the 21st Century, the pendulum appears to be swinging back to a more modern form of vitalism. Many of us believe that we are more than the sum of our chemical composition. This may not necessarily mean we believe in a single divine being but, at least for me, it is hard to observe the natural world without believing in some form of spirit or vital spark that continues to pour life into everything around us. In many countries there is a growing backlash against the mechanistic, dehumanising experience of our current medical system and an increasing interest in holistic approaches. Many doctors and medical researchers are themselves leading the shift in thinking to a more balanced approach to health, one that encompasses both the detailed observation of our cellular functions, and the balancing of our vitality, our humanity.
Reiki is gaining greater acceptance in the medical profession and accelerating its reach into hospitals, emergency rooms, operating theatres and care homes. In a 2007 study by the American Hospitals Association, 15% of hospitals in the USA offered Reiki to their inpatients. Andrew Schafer, Chief Physician at New York-Presbyterian Hospital/Weill Cornell Medical Center sums it up by saying “today’s complementary and alternative therapies could be tomorrow’s medical breakthroughs.” In tandem with the growth in popularity of Reiki within medical establishments, Reiki is also one of the fastest growing self-healing therapies.
Reiki is believed to be the life force that flows through everything and by harnessing this energy and using it in the body we can improve our balance and vitality. Once the body is in balance, it can reset its own processes and fix malfunctions all by itself. The assumption is that although the body can heal itself it is often blocked; the vital spark (or Chi) is not moving freely and Reiki can help the body unblock and heal.
I was inspired by Emoto’s rice experiments and decided to try my own Reiki version! Two identical glass jars were sterilized by boiling water. I then put 2 tablespoons of cooked rice from the same batch into each pot and created one control, which was left alone for the entire time, and one ‘Reiki’ pot which received a 1 minute blast of Reiki every other day. Here are the results, pretty interesting right?!
As with all experiments, it is not easy to judge or decipher the outcome. Why did white mold begin growing in the Reiki jar and not the Control? How did the Reiki jar remain so white and fluffy? I don’t know what it means, I only know that in an experiment we are looking for significant differences in outcome. My only hypothesis is that Reiki makes a difference, and I think we can see that it does. Its not a belief system or in our imagination – we can actually try it for ourselves with experiments like these. Very groovy!
In the beginning: 2 identical samples
After 1 week: some browning on the control, Reiki jar looks fresh and some white mold beginning to grow
After 2.5 weeks: Control continues to brown, Reiki jar grows white mold prolifically
After 4 weeks: a significant difference! Control rice is all brown with white spotting, Reiki is all white with a proliferation of white fluffy mold. I didn’t open the jar to smell it, but the difference was very clear.
If you decide to copy this experiment, please post your photos here too!
One of the more surprising aspects of the Reiki Survey was the significant improvement in benefits perceived by the higher levels of training. This was something I was not expecting when I ran the report though with reflection it certainly makes sense. Level 2 is a quantum leap in many ways as it takes self-healing to a higher and more deliberate level. At the most basic level with Reiki we are simply acting as funnels, or to use a football analogy, we are simply spectators. Reiki flows through our hands into our cells and at that cellular level, we heal. Of course to see significant change we are also responsible in making changes happen, but essentially, when it comes to the Reiki, we are not in charge and we have no say in what areas are healed, at what rate, and with what priority.
Level 2 takes the healing into our own hands (pun intended!) by putting us squarely on the pitch. Instead of spectators we become players. We learn how to manipulate the energy and transform it into specific form. I.e. we learn how to turn the potential of Reiki energy into energy with a specific purpose. We can decide ourselves which areas of our lives we want to direct more healing, be it physical, mental, emotional, or to a specific event or trauma. We become more self-directing and deliberate in our healing journey and so on many levels this advanced training takes us much further, quicker.
Reiki Level 2 should be taken some time after Level 1. In my teaching tradition, a two month wait is stipulated, this period of time is an important opportunity to practice Reiki and ensure your energy is high. It is also an important time for self-healing to ensure you are ready to use the tools wisely. As we become players, we can choose our healing strategy, our ego minds can take control again, and if we are not more awake and aware, we can actually end up damaging our growth rather than aiding it. Also, unlike Level 1, the progressive Levels require the use of mental energy and as a result can be draining for those who have not been using their Reiki for self-healing.
As with the Level 1 training, there is an enormous discrepancy in the way the classes are taught. I frequently get calls from Level 2 practitioners who have little knowledge of the tools at their disposal. Having been taught nothing, they end up with nothing. This level should be full of possibilities and magic, I am hard pushed to cram all the information and tips into 10 hours of teaching and would seriously question a class of less than 6 hours of teaching time. Many classes seem to focus o the distance healing aspect of Reiki Level 2, but this is only one of many, many tools available at this level.
For those practitioners interested in taking Reiki to therapy level, the Level 2 training is possibly the minimum standard recommended before professionally treating others. For other people who enjoy Level 1, there is no need to go further with training, but the research does suggest each stage of training brings even more benefits.
One of the great benefits of Reiki energy is its ability to get the receiver into ‘alpha’ state. Alpha is the term used for the brain waves associated with meditation and relaxation. Practitioners of Reiki report effortlessly falling into alpha state through the simple process of placing their hands on themselves or others and although we do not yet understand how this occurs so easily, we believe that one of the pathways of Reiki energy is in stimulating the brainwaves towards deeper relaxed states.
“This wave type has been used as a universal sign of relaxation during meditation and other types of rest,” comments Professor Øyvind Ellingsen from NTNU. “The amount of alpha waves increases when the brain relaxes from intentional, goal-oriented tasks.This is a sign of deep relaxation, — but it does not mean that the mind is void.”
Neuroimaging studies by Malia F. Mason and co-workers at Dartmouth College NH suggest that the normal resting state of the brain is a silent current of thoughts, images and memories that is not induced by sensory input or intentional reasoning, but emerges spontaneously “from within.”
“Spontaneous wandering of the mind is something you become more aware of and familiar with when you meditate,” continues Ellingsen, who is an experienced practitioner. “This default activity of the brain is often underestimated. It probably represents a kind of mental processing that connects various experiences and emotional residues, puts them into perspective and lays them to rest.”
So far from trying to ’still’ the mind as many meditation methodsteach, in Reiki we simply allow the energy to work and the brain to quiet naturally. For those of us who have been practicing Reiki for awhile, we know the powerful ‘ah-ha’ moments that can arise when we allow the alpha state of our relaxed brain to mentally process, release and make us more aware.
When you are ready to activate Reiki in your own hands, the process you need to participate in is called an ‘Attunement’. Normally it is given as part of a Reiki workshop and in my lineage, it requires 4 Attunements spread out over the Usui Reiki Level 1 class (or 1 Attunement at Kundalini Reiki Level 1) in order to activate Reiki permanently in a person.
One of the questions I get asked a lot is “what exactly are you doing when you give an Attunement?” Although difficult to answer without going into a long and involved trip down several different concepts, the basis for an Attunement is best summed up as ‘resonance’.
If we place two same frequency tuning forks in a room and hit one of the forks with a mallet, the corresponding fork will vibrate in resonance, if we stop the sound of the original one we will still hear the sound resonating from the second one that was not touched – the vibration of sound flows through the air from one tuning fork to the other and the second fork responds by resonating to the same vibration (see video at the end). In this way, someone who is trained to activate Reiki (referred to as a Reiki Master) is also trained to gain access to a vibration that allows the Reiki to activate in that person, and via resonance this information is passed on to another person through the ritual of ‘Attunement’.
Over the years the Reiki Attunement has undergone many changes to the extent that one Attunement process differs vastly from another in any given lineage. However this is not a problem as the intention is to simply raise the vibration to a level that allows the body to resonate with the same frequency of energy as Reiki, once this is achieved the body is able to remember this frequency and it is retained for life. Once you have been attuned to Reiki the ability to funnel or channel Reiki becomes a life long ability (much like learning to ride a bike, once you ‘know’ something you cannot ‘unknow’ it).
Anyone can be Attuned, there is no talent required or special healing ‘gift’, I have attuned little children, cats and dogs, I have attuned sceptics and believers, meditation masters and high-flying business executives. No one can block resonance, if you want to have Reiki, there is nothing to stop you achieving that goal.
Once you have had an Attunement, the Reiki will simply flow through your hands automatically and without your direction, you can liken yourself to a large energy funnel and you can now direct your hands to any area of your body that requires attention.
Deciding which route to take needn’t be a difficult task, many people choose to start with one and then also learn the other as both systems complement each other and provide different tools. Both utilize the same universal energy so there is no clash or negative results from learning both together and each provides certain advantages which are discussed below.
How is Usui Reiki and Kundalini Reiki different?
Usui Reiki seems to work on the etheric energy level of the body, or the ‘blueprint’ of the body. Energy from the Universe travels through our hands and into the body automatically and without thought or intention. The healer can actually be asleep or can be an animal and the reiki will still flow, as if by osmosis. Energy will travel from areas of high energy ie. the Universe, to areas of low energy ie our body. It is a very simple, natural and totally automatic response. The Reiki workshops activate the Reiki in a person’s hands and allows this process to flow. As a result you do not need to be aware of energy, or of flow, or indeed of any sensations.
Usui Reiki treatments for both self-treatments and treating others last from 30 to 60 minutes and induce a deep sense of relaxation, similar to meditation. As a result when treating yourself with Reiki you will feel much calmer and it will probably put you to sleep! The Usui system’s advantage is in its ease of use and automatic flow – meaning you do not need to be aware of what you are doing, or have any feelings or sensations for the energy to work.
At the level 1 Workshop you will learn how to give a treatment to yourself, to others and to plants and animals. However, if you wish to do distance healing, cleanse environments or work on specific blockages you will need to attend a level 2 workshop to learn the symbols to activate these processes.
Kundalini Reiki appears to work through the mental energy (a higher vibration energy level) and requires mental thought to activate the healing. Practitioners are taught to think ‘Reiki’ to get the flow going. As a result the practitioner is more involved, and more influential in the healing process, this is particularly true at higher levels of healing in Kundalini Reiki 2 and 3. Although this may seem more like hard work, the process is quickened and shortened because of this higher energy involvement. It also means that through intention, the practitioner can manipulate the energy and move it around the body, as well as harmonising situations and events, releasing emotions and conducting distance healing. This is much wider in range than Usui Reiki 1 (these techniques are taught in Usui Reiki level 2).
Kundalini Reiki treatments are 5 minutes in length and as a result people find it an easier system to do as a daily practice. There is also an optional 20 minute mediation given at the level 1 class for those who enjoy meditation and want a longer treatment. This system’s main advantage is in its speed to treatments and the flexibility and range of tools offered at level one. In general we feel Kundalini Reiki 1 is equivalent to Usui 1 & 2.
The benefits of beginning with Usui Reiki is that it is absolutely the best foundational healing course for the beginner, or the skeptic. It is also the original Reiki and for some it has the attraction of its long tradition and reputation. It is truly a tried and tested system of effective healing.
The benefits of beginning with Kundalini Reiki is that it is more versatile, faster and easier to incorporate into daily life. It is also much faster to learn and you can benefit from a huge range of tools in a very short period of time.
Kundalini Reiki is a new form of reiki that originates from Ole Gabrielsen, a Danish healer and meditation Master. Like Usui Reiki, it is not a belief system or philosophy; it is based on universal energy and is activated through the Master to the student simply through transference. This form of Reiki does not require symbols and as such is a much faster and simpler form of Reiki to learn.
No prior Reiki knowledge is required to do this course.
Kundalini 1 Saturday 18th February, 9.30am-4.30pm, with Shirley Tay Wed 7-Thurs 8 March, 9.30am-12.30pm, with Kate Drewer
Fee: $240 Email: kate@reikicentre.com.sg or shirley@reikicentre.com.sg to reserve
During the Workshop, only one attunement is required to activate the participants to Kundalini Reiki. The treatments are very quick, just 5 minutes in duration which means a great deal of ground can be covered during the day. This is a fast paced workshop and we will learn the following:
Students learn how to:
Give a Reiki energy treatment to themselves
Give a Reiki treatment to others, and other living things
Give distance healing to others, and other living things
Clear space (offices, home, workshop rooms etc) to provide more balanced energies
Clear past blockages such as situations, uncomfortable relationship ties, past trauma etc.
The attunement and meditations are extremely calming and healing so the day itself is a wonderful healing experience and opportunity to de-stress, have fun and learn a fantastic tool for life!
Please wear comfortable clothing and bring a towel to lie on. It is recommended that no alcohol is taken 48 hours prior to the course.
To register please email: kate@reikicentre.com.sg or shirley@reikicentre.com.sg
Every individual is unique and so is every individual’s journey with Reiki. It’s important to remember that Reiki itself is not ‘doing’ anything; it is simply providing the fuel – the energy – for you to do your own inner work.
Reiki works much like meditation and our brain uses it to promote alpha and theta brain waves. The brain is seen to produce different frequencies of electrical activity across its neurons depending on what it is doing. Alpha waves are predominantly associated with states of relaxation, a calm wakefulness. These waves can be produced by closing your eyes, relaxing and becoming still. Theta waves are more predominant in skilled meditators and represent a quiet watchfulness – the mind watching its thoughts. Both types of waves denote relaxation and a stopping of active, busy or anxious thinking, or active concentration, which produces beta waves.
Excerpt from 
Kundalini Reiki is a new form of reiki that originates from Ole Gabrielsen, a Danish healer and meditation Master. Like Usui Reiki, it is not a belief system or philosophy; it is based on universal energy and is activated through the Master to the student simply through transference. This form of Reiki does not require symbols and as such is a much faster and simpler form of Reiki to learn.
